There are concerns that selenium could be blown by winds impacting lands used for cattle grazing, or seep into surface water, polluting downstream waterways. Should local ranchers be concerned about impacts on rangelands? Should water users and irrigation farmers in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan be concerned about impacts on water quality for human consumption, livestock watering and effects on irrigated lands and crops?

The project would include a coal preparation plant, a surface coal mine, and other infrastructure, located on a combination of Crown lands and private lands. The project would occupy about 7,000 acres of land within the Municipal District of Ranchland in Townships 8 and 9, and Ranges 3 and 4, west of the fifth meridian. The project would produce about 93 million tonnes of coal over a proposed 25-year mine life.

Blairmore Creek and Gold Creek, which flow into the Crowsnest River, are near the south end of the project. Daisey Creek is near the north end of the project. Both Daisy Creek and Crowsnest River flow into the Oldman River and the Oldman dam. Downstream, the Oldman River joins the Bow River to become the South Saskatchewan River. Changes in water quality in the Oldman River could impact towns and cities downstream including Lethbridge, Medicine Hat and Saskatoon. Irrigation farmers that take water from the Oldman or South Saskatchewan Rivers could be impacted.

Where the selenium is

Selenium (Se) occurs naturally in the environment at very low levels. Selenium is present in coal at mean concentrations of three milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) with a general range between 0.05 to 10.7 mg/kg. Both anthropogenic and natural sources of Se contribute to the presence of Se in the environment. The natural sources of Se are the weathering of rocks, minerals and soil, which contain minute amounts of Se.

In 1992, the Geological Survey of Canada noted Se levels in Alberta soils ranged from 0.1 to 2.7 mg/kg, Saskatchewan soils ranged from 0.1 to 3.1 mg/kg and Manitoba soils ranged from 0.1 to 4.7 mg/kg. Elemental Se is essentially insoluble. In soil, Se occurs in salts of selenic and selenious acids, selenates and selenites. Selenates are more mobile in soil due to their higher solubility and inability to adsorb onto soil particles.

Plant roots will take up soluble forms of Se, but Se is not required for plant growth. Selenium uptake by plants is affected by various soil characteristics including soil texture, acidity/alkalinity (pH), redox potential (Eh), organic matter, clay content, soil levels of sulphate and phosphate, and Se levels in the soil. Different plant species have varying ability to accumulate Se. Plant uptake of Se tends to be greater in higher-pH soils, but lower uptake occurs in soils with higher clay, organic matter or soils with higher sulphate levels.

Selenium taken up by plants is translocated to all parts of the plant, but concentrations are usually higher in seed than leaves or stems. Plant accumulation of Se is usually less than one mg/kg.

Selenium is a required nutrient for livestock and humans. Livestock depend on Se in forages to meet their Se requirements. Selenium requirements for domestic animals are in the range of 0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg in dry matter but can become toxic if present in slightly greater amounts.

(For detailed information on Se in soil, consult the soil quality guidelines in the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (2009) report.)

Health Canada reports the maximum acceptable concentration for total Se in drinking water is 50 micrograms/litre (µg /L). This is also the standard used in the province of Alberta. However, the B.C. Ministry of the Environment (2014) has set maximum acceptable concentration for Se in drinking water at 10 µg/L, for irrigation water at 10 µg/L and for livestock watering at 30 µg/L.

For the average person, these scientific units may be hard to comprehend. If we use the Se level of 50 µg/L of water, that is about 50 parts per billion. To put this in terms of time, it would be about the same as 50 seconds in 31.7 years. This is an extremely small amount of Se — but also a very significant and critical amount.

Conversions for context

• 1 milligram/kilogram (mg/kg) = 1 part per million (p.p.m.)
• 1 microgram/litre (µg /L) = 1 part per billion (p.p.b.)
• 1 milligram/litre (mg/L) = 1,000 micrograms/litre (µg /L)

Selenium in surface water?

Selenium can enter surface water naturally due to erosion and weathering of soil and rock materials and move in runoff from precipitation and snowmelt into surface waters. In southern Alberta, Se in surface water is normally extremely low and well below acceptable concentrations — except downstream from former coal mining sites.

Open pit coal mining increases erosion and weathering of disturbed rock formations and soils, potentially causing enhanced Se concentrations in surface water runoff into nearby streams and lakes.

The original Grassy Mountain coal mine was abandoned about 60 years ago and was never reclaimed. A report by Colin Cooke, Craig Emmerton and Paul Drevnick (2024) reviewed information and water quality data from the Grassy Mountain site and the region. The Alberta researchers found coal mining left a legacy of disturbed landscapes and abandoned infrastructure with clear impacts on water resources.

The authors noted the intensity and persistence of  water pollution. Pollution and contamination have been poorly characterized in the area. The researchers collected water samples downstream of two historical coal mines, Tent Mountain and Grassy Mountain.

Tent Mountain is a partially reclaimed surface mine that closed in 1983. Selenium concentrations downstream of Tent Mountain reached 185 μg/L in a lake below the mine spoil pile, and up to 23 μg/L in Crowsnest Creek, which drains the lake and the mine property. The authors noted that in 2019, two streams draining the waste rock pile at Tent Mountain were sampled and analyzed for dissolved Se and concentrations ranged from 119 to 801 μg/L — well above maximum acceptable concentrations.

Lessons from B.C.

West of the proposed Grassy Mountain project in southeastern British Columbia’s Elk Valley are a number of open-pit mines. Selenium in the Elk River has become a very serious issue. The city of Fernie cannot take its drinking water from the Elk River due to excessive Se levels in the river. Fernie must take its drinking water from Fairy Creek and two wells.

Cooke et al, in their report, noted waste rock, generated during coal mining in the Elk Valley, is stockpiled in nearby valleys where precipitation-induced leaching of Se has raised Se concentrations and loads in the Elk River. The Elk River then transports this Se and other contaminants downstream to Lake Koocanusa, a reservoir that crosses the Canada-U.S. border in B.C. and Montana, resulting in international water quality concerns. Cooke and co-researchers expect a legacy of coal mining inputs rests in the bed sediment of Lake Koocanusa, including Se and other compounds. They expect the input of these contaminants to continue long after the Elk Valley coal mines close.

Wyatt Petryshen of conservation organization Wildsight in 2023 conducted a study looking at fugitive coal dust in the Elk Valley and noted a strong relationship between proximity to mountaintop coal mines and increased Se contamination, as well as other potentially toxic elements including silver, germanium, nickel, uranium, vanadium and zirconium. This study found contamination was highest immediately surrounding mountaintop mines and decreased at increasing distances from fugitive dust sources. Based on the conclusions of this study, the author recommended other mining jurisdictions in mountainous regions should be aware of the risk fugitive coal dust emissions pose to community health and the environment.

Cooke and Drevnick, in a separate paper in 2022, noted long-range atmospheric transport and deposition of contaminants including Se occurring from southeastern B.C. into southwestern Alberta. Fugitive coal dust emitted from the nearby Elk Valley coal mines in B.C. may be playing a role, as these mines were shown recently to be an important regional source of atmospheric emissions downwind in southern Alberta.

Managing selenium in water

It only takes minute amounts of Se in water to exceed safe levels for human consumption or for irrigated crop production. To remove Se from water is very costly and very difficult. In Canada, the greatest Se contamination problem in surface waters is in the Elk Valley of B.C. The owner of the mines has been making great efforts to improve the Se pollution problem, but only with limited success; Se continues to be a significant problem. Some researchers (Cooke et al., 2024) suggest the problem will likely continue for many years.

A research team from China’s Nanjing University (Li et al., 2022) conducted a critical review of more than 100 research papers published in the past decade of applications, characteristics and latest developments of various technologies for the treatment of Se-polluted water. They concluded that although there are promising methods in treating Se in water, further studies are still needed to develop sustainable strategies based on existing and new technologies.

Downstream concerns

Should downstream water users in southern Alberta and into Saskatchewan be very concerned if the Grassy Mountain Coal Project goes ahead? In my opinion, yes: water users should be very concerned.

If your drinking water comes from the Crowsnest River, Oldman River or South Saskatchewan River, you should be concerned. If water is used from these rivers for livestock watering, you should be concerned. Rangelands downwind of the project could be affected by fugitive coal dust.

For irrigation farmers, whether in southern Alberta or in Saskatchewan: if your irrigation water is sourced downstream from this project, I would be concerned. What will the Se levels be in irrigation water if the project goes ahead? How will Se in irrigation water affect Se levels in soil? What will be the effects of elevated Se levels in plants and harvested crops? These are all questions that will need to be addressed.

We need to be very aware and learn from our neighbours of the long-term Se pollution problems in southeastern B.C. and into the United States. In my opinion, the potential pollution and contamination risks in the long term to our drinking water and irrigated lands in Alberta and Saskatchewan are simply too high.

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Of course, as I write this, I must acknowledge that within the past 24 hours, we’ve received nearly five inches of heavy rain and hail. I’m not sure if I should rejoice by listening to my winter cereals germinate, or if I will gleefully torch a tumbleweed, but our municipal fire ban is still in effect, so I’ll be mindful of my celebrations.

In reality, farmers and ranchers everywhere are somewhere on the continuum of experiencing severe drought or being submerged in unwanted water. Every region has unique challenges, and every farm business has its goals and objectives.

How you approach drought, flood or any disaster in between will depend on a lot of factors. Are you just starting out as a farmer or are you winding down your operation? What is your appetite for risk? What are your strengths? What are your short-term workarounds and what are your long-term goals? What will you do if the tough times last for six months…or six years? What will your cash flow needs be?

Ranching in a drier region, we are always somewhat expecting a drought, although the past seven years have been a longer dry spell than what we typically deal with.

Water is our major limitation, not just for forage crops and pastures, but particularly for stock water. Most of our pastures rely on dugouts for surface water, and when runoff is minimal and wind-fuelled evaporation is at its maximum, both quality and quantity plummet.

Fortunately, pumping from the water source using solar- or wind-powered pumps can dramatically extend the longevity of your water supply and help retain quality. You must check your pumps daily, but if you can extend your dugout by a few weeks, or even a few days, it’s often worth it. Trail cameras can also be useful for alerting you between checks.

If you find yourself hauling water to pastures, ensure you have adequate trough space for the herd and that one trough is low enough for calves to reach. Perhaps a big poly tank can be set up and filled to gravity-feed into troughs, to ensure a more consistent flow. Also, consider what infrastructure you may be tying up. For example, if you are hauling water with a semi, that may limit the job to one or two licensed operators and tie up equipment that could be used for other things…like hauling feed.

Test water and feed

In Saskatchewan, we are extremely fortunate to access water quality testing through our agriculture extension offices. We have a robust forage and livestock extension service that many other provinces envy, so I figure if they are willing to help, let’s capitalize on it.

Grassland and forages are the cornerstone of beef cattle production and stickhandling through drought becomes a function of managing inventories: how much grass, how much feed, and how many cattle.

Don Campbell, a well-known holistic management instructor and grazer, shared a Bud Williams quote with me: “You can never have too much money, you can never have too much grass, but you can have too many cattle.”

Those words have stuck with me. When things are uncertain, we use our yearlings as a flex herd and can retain or sell them as needed or as the season progresses.

We’ve had to expand our definition of “feed,” but in doing so, I want to emphasize that you must feed test to prevent a wreck. We’ve fed a variety of crops and byproducts and have worked with a nutritionist to help us make confident choices. Using a custom-made mineral program has helped us offset any feed or water quality concerns.

While we’ve grown some good intercrops and continue to look into novel forages, we tend to safety up and stick with tried-and-true crops for our farm such as fall rye that we can use for grazing, baling, silage or combining.

Raising a living commodity gives beef producers a different sense of responsibility and urgency. We don’t worry about bushels of grain the same way we worry about meeting the needs of our herd. That accountability can fuel innovation, resourcefulness and empathy and can bring out the best in people when you need it most.

The relationships we forged and maintained through some of our hardest times, and the people who shared an encouraging word or idea, something we try to pay forward, have been a blessing.

When the wind stops blowing and the dust settles, it’s not government programs or feed or even five inches of rain that will pull you through tough times, it is people.

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Water is considered to be the universal solvent because it is capable of dissolving more substances than any other liquid. Therefore, one of the first things we might want to know about a given water sample is the total dissolved solids (TDS).

TDS can be determined by evaporating a sample to dryness at 105 C and weighing the residue — simple in concept, but time-consuming in practice, so not often used.

TDS can also be determined by measuring all the chemical elements in a sample and adding them up, but that is seldom done. If the chemical elements are previously determined, it is a simple matter to add them up. If just TDS is reported, with no explanation of how it was determined, it may not be reliable.

What chemical elements are dissolved?

Major positively-charged elements are Ca++, Mg++ and Na+, with K+ as an also-ran. Hard water is caused by Ca++ and Mg++, while soft water is dominated by Na+.

Water hardness is expressed as CaCO3 equivalent in parts per million (p.p.m.) and can be easily measured in the field with a Hach testing kit. In our days on the road staying in motels, we could get some idea of water hardness by the way the soap acted in the shower!

• Negatively-charged elements are Cl- and SO4 – -, with NO3- as an also-ran. Most of our waters are SO4 dominated.

Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a simple measurement that can be easily made in the field. The units are microSiemens per centimetre (uS/cm), corrected to a standard temperature of 25 C.

For sulphate-dominated waters, with TDS from 1,000 to 20,000 p.p.m., a useful first approximation is that EC in uS/cm is about equal to TDS in p.p.m.

The level of water hardness in water wells is determined by the geology of that well. If completed in glacial deposits, the water will be hard. Unless completed in sand, most Saskatchewan farm wells have hard water. If completed in pre-glacial (that is, bedrock) deposits, the water will be soft. Most Alberta farm wells are completed in pre-glacial deposits, so the water is soft.

A final note

In this neck of the woods, if we know the EC and hardness of a water sample, we know a lot about that water and what it can be used for.

Many water well drillers have EC and hardness equipment with the drill rig and can measure a water sample as soon as a well is developed and pumping.

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The link between nitrate-contaminated farmyard wells and blue-baby was first reported by pediatrician Dr. Hunter Comly in 1945 in Iowa. His report documented a newborn baby who made three trips to the hospital showing the symptoms associated with the disease. Well water from the baby’s home farm was tested and nitrate was found to be the culprit.

This brought on a number of studies in northern U.S. and the Prairies of Canada. In 1949, a large survey of more than 2,000 farm wells in Saskatchewan reported 18 per cent of those wells to be nitrate-contaminated.

The limit for well water nitrate in this part of the world is 10 p.p.m. of nitrate-N, or 45 p.p.m. of nitrate. The Brits used 20 p.p.m. of nitrate-N for water utilities for years with no ill effects. They went back to the 10-p.p.m. of nitrate-N limit mostly because of political pressure from Europe.

All of that before significant use of N fertilizer

In today’s world, the first suspected culprit for nitrate contaminated wells is nitrogen fertilizers. To be sure, if we pork on way too much N in a wet area and especially on sandy soils, nitrate could be the culprit. That mostly means irrigated land and crops that require a large dose of N to yield well.

Here’s a publication that documents the situation in Western Canada as of that time: Fertilizers and Groundwater Nitrate, by J.L. Henry and W.A. Meneley, June 1993. It can be accessed on Saskatchewan’s Water Security Agency website at this link.

That report produced a map of risk categories for nitrate contamination of aquifers. High-risk areas included the Assiniboine Delta aquifer in Manitoba, the sandy irrigation area near Outlook, Sask., and small areas near Vernon, Oliver and the lower Fraser Valley of B.C.

Other sources for groundwater nitrate

There are many sources of nitrate that could end up in the groundwater and then farm wells.

Intensive livestock operations (ILOs) require special care to avoid problems. When ILOs were popping up in the 1980s, I suggested to Saskatchewan provincial authorities that they do a farm water well survey before an ILO was constructed, but no one listened.

In the 1990s when the then-Saskatchewan Wheat Pool was starting to build large hog barns, I suggested they do water well surveys early in the planning stage and they agreed. The first barn was in northwestern Saskatchewan and the local farmer steering committee was gung-ho to go ahead. They got samples from dozens of farms, so there was a bit of a lab bill — but nitrate-contaminated wells were found. Mom-and-Pop small farms often had the well too near the barnyard, but in one case there was a contaminated well in a farmyard with no history of animals.

WATCH: Is your livestock water supply up to the test?

The pre-build survey made sense to the project proponents. If a nitrate-contaminated well is found five years after a barn was built, guess who is going to take the blame?

One of the first research projects I completed was looking at nitrate deep in the soil; “deep” then was 20 feet, with the equipment we had. We sampled at the then-Saskatoon Tree Nursery farm, at a site between tree stands that had been continuously summerfallowed for 10 years. We found 501 pounds per acre of nitrate-N to a depth of 16 feet. The largest concentration was at nine to 11 feet — just right for a shallow-dug or bored well.

The bottom line

As spring approaches, farm families are establishing the land they will be farming in 2024. If a young farm family with a baby is moving into an old established farmyard with an existing well, do be sure to get that well tested before using the water. Provincial public health labs are the best places to do such testing, because they are in a position to interpret data and give suitable recommendations.

If this short piece prevents tragedy for even one family it will be a great stroke of pride for knowledge.

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There are several factors in your water source that could lower the efficacy of your herbicide, insecticide or fungicide sprays.

In Saskatchewan, hard water (high magnesium and calcium levels) can be common in wells that tap into glacial water deposits. Wells in bedrock aquifers usually draw soft water, but can contain bicarbonate — even low levels of this compound can interfere with crop protection product effectiveness. In addition, water with high levels of bicarbonate but low levels of other anions (negatively charged ions) such as sulphate and chloride can reduce performance levels.

Furthermore, these water characteristics can change in the same farm water source from year to year, says Yvan Bruneau, general manager at Central Testing Laboratory in Winnipeg, Man. “Water can change depending on the type of source and use — well or dugout, geology, weather and environmental conditions,” he explains. “The best practice is to test once per year, to follow trends and changes.”

Labs usually offer a “spray package” of tests that include alkalinity, pH, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, sulphate, calculated total dissolved solids, hardness, sodium absorption ratio and more.

Lab samples can be dropped off if the laboratory is close by, otherwise they should be sent by courier as mailing is too slow. Samples sent to ALS Environmental laboratories, for example, must be received within 30 hours of sampling (and must be accompanied by a submission form).

However, some growers also do their own quick water tests. A conductivity meter can be used to initially measure hardness. If the electrical conductivity value is higher than 500 millisiemens per centimetre, a hardness analysis should be done to check for antagonizing cations (positively charged ion). Paper test strips with a colour scale are a quick way to determine hardness. Paper pH test strips are also readily available.

Corrective actions

Shelby LaRose, proprietary products manager at Loveland Products Canada in Saskatchewan, has provided a roundup of common water quality problems and possible corrective actions.

“Before doing any of these corrective actions, test your water to determine any problems you may have. Also consult the labels of the pesticides you are using to determine the correct water quality for the pesticide being applied,” she says.

Hardness

If water is hard, growers can add a water conditioner agent (like Choice Weather Master) at 0.25-0.5%v/v to the tank first before adding any herbicide. “This will tie up the many ‘hard water’ molecules in your water source before tying up the herbicide,” LaRose says. “Adding products like ammonium sulphate (AMS), urea ammonium nitrate or other softeners will only take care of calcium and that may not be the only source of your hard water.”

Cleanliness/turbidity

Turbidity occurs when the surface water sources contain clay soils or soil from runoff. Turbidity can be reduced by adding aluminum sulphate to your water source, agitating and letting it sit for 24 to 48 hours.

Bicarbonate

Bicarbonate’s antagonistic effects depend on the presence of other ions including calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. “Any acid source, such as sulfuric or phosphoric will reduce the pH and prevent carbonate salts from forming,” says LaRose.

PH level

Water pH can be lowered with buffers, such as adjuvants with acidification buffers and water-conditioning agents. Being able to lower water pH will also help reduce the “tie-up” of herbicide molecules and will help with the efficacy of the spray solution, LaRose says. Lowering the pH works for most herbicide solutions except for sulphonylurea chemistries.

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In this column, I’ll describe a few examples of good monitoring and show the importance of the function. I’ll also talk about some monitoring that was done in the past but is no longer available. In some cases, measurement may be happening but accessing the data is a nightmare.

Groundwater observation well data

Knowing the height of the water table over time is important because many farm folks rely on groundwater for domestic and livestock use.

The drought of the 1930s spawned the best and most comprehensive water well survey ever done in the three Prairie provinces. The survey was done in 1935 and individual RM reports (Grey Books) were available the next year. Today it would take longer than that to form the committee to decide if it should be done! Those who have a copy of my book, Henry’s Handbook of Soils and Water can check out page 152 for more information.

The worry at that time was that shallow dug and bored wells were going dry, and the feds wanted to get a better handle on the problem. In 1935 there were many, many populated farms so the density of data is high. For shallow wells, the level at that time represents a low point. We now know that water table fluctuations can be as much as eight feet over time.

Long-term groundwater observation

All three Prairie provinces have long-term observation wells. The Saskatchewan Network was sited based on locations that would reflect how Mother Nature was operating without the confounding effect of groundwater wells and pumping. The network was established in the 1960s by Bill Meneley (1933 – 2000) who was with the Saskatchewan Research Council at the time. Groundwater work, including the well data, is now at the Water Security Agency at Moose Jaw and all data can be obtained at online on the Observation Well Network page on the Water Security Agency website.

The chart below shows a continuous water level record for a 35-foot well near Melfort, Sask. Regular readers will recognize that this is an updated version from an article in 2016.

There is a continuous record of the water level from 1968 to 2018. I interpret the slow but continuous water level drop from 1975 to 2005 as a 30-year net cumulative drought with slight upticks in 1985 and 1995. We still grew crops in those years but most years the next rain was needed soon.

The big swing in 2005 was driven by the huge snowmelt that year. The leveling off in 2011 means that the excess water coming in could dissipate, likely by causing soil salinity in the area.

I recently received a communication from former student Majorie Mann. She reminded me: “I recall a speech by Tim Ball, formerly meteorologist writing for Country Guide, predicting at the peak of the 2002 drought that given sun spot science we were in for a 15- to 20-year wet cycle beginning in 2005 and he has been spot on.”

Those of you that remember Tim Ball from talks at farm meetings can learn more at drtimball.com. Tim was a professor of climate science at the University of Winnipeg, and well known for dealing with climate facts. He spent much time studying the detailed weather records kept by the Hudson Bay Company and could quote chapter and verse to show that weather some global warmers think is “new” all happened hundreds of years ago.

Surface water quality monitoring

Information about water flows of rivers and streams and lake water levels is readily available with a Google search of water survey of Canada real-time hydrometric data.

But, information on water chemistry and quality is a different matter. In decades gone by the federal government, provincial governments and Prairie Provinces Water Board had an excellent program of sampling rivers etc. and the results were published in annual data books. The data included the major minerals and in some cases herbicides as well. I still have a shelf full of those books but they are now decades old and more recent data is not available.

The records from the three rivers that become the South Saskatchewan at the Alberta/Saskatchewan border had very good records showing that the phosphorus input had actually declined over many years. The reason was that Calgary and Lethbridge installed tertiary sewage treatment that removed the major source of phosphorus.

Some measurements are still being made but public access to data is almost nil. How can we know what effect mankind is having on waterways if there is no consistent monitoring? In today’s world it should all be accessible with a few mouse clicks.

A simple example: Slough water

The table below shows data from a 12-year monitoring of salt content of a slough next to my farm yard on NW-22-32-3-W3, near Dundurn, Sask. The EC (Electrical Conductivity) is a measure of the electric current that passes through the water. The more salts, the higher the EC. EC for these waters is very close to the TDS (total dissolved solids) in ppm.

At the turn of the century that slough was dry and hay was cut. The cumulative net drought from 1975 to 2004 had lowered water tables and the water pressure in deeper aquifers that cause much of our soil salinity. The big snow of 2005 filled the slough and in June 2006 the water quality was fine for cows and could be used in some irrigation scenarios.

The continuous wet years actually made the water more salty. The salt ring around the slough and groundwater discharge would be the reason for higher salt with higher water level. For 2013 to 2015 the readings were in the 2,500 to 3,500 range.

The droughts of the past two years have brought big changes even over short time periods. In 2018 the water has gone from 3,750 on May 28 to 6,650 on July 30. The only decent rains in that time period were 0.75 inches on July 1 and 0.85 inches on July 4, both with little runoff. There have also been many days of 30 C temperatures and winds to suck up water.

Monitoring is really important and anyone with cows on pasture should be doing that monitoring or hiring it done.

Monitoring is often seen as an expensive exercise only good for academics. If we do not keep track of changes over time, how can we make proper decisions? In today’s digital world “big data: can do this but all the numbers gathered must be interpreted and placed in context to be useful in decision making.

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Water chemistry can be a daunting subject but in the Coles Notes version it can be quite simple. The important “stuff” for agricultural needs can be measured in the field. Water in the spray tank, domestic use, livestock use and irrigation are the big reasons we need to know what is in our water.

Water chemistry: The Coles Notes

The major things dissolved in water are:

1. Positively Charged:

•  Calcium (Ca++);
•  Magnesium (Mg++); and,
•  Sodium (Na+).

Hard Water is dominated by Ca and Mg and soft water by Na.

2. Negatively Charged:

•  Sulphate (SO4);
•  Bicarbonate (HCO3-); and,
•  Chloride (Cl-).

Total dissolved solids (TDS):

TDS is the sum of all the things dissolved in a particular water and can be expressed as parts per million (ppm). The chemically correct unit for TDS is mg/l (milligrams per litre) but for waters we use ppm. It’s easily understood.

To get the TDS of a water sample you can send it to a lab. They will determine all of the above, add them up and give you the TDS in ppm (or mg/l).

But, for most waters we use, a very good first approximation of TDS can be made by measuring the amount of electricity that a water will conduct. This measurement, Electrical Conductivity (EC), is sometimes referred to as Specific Conductance. The EC is a temperature-dependent measurement; all data is corrected to 25 C.

Measuring water in the field

EC is measured in units of microSiemens/cm (µS/cm).

For reference points:

• Mountain-fed rivers (for example the Saskatchewan River) measure about 400 µS/cm.
• Sand point wells measure about 500 to 1,000 µS/cm.
• Most farm wells measure between 1,500 and 3,000+ µS/cm.

The Saskatchewan government website www.saskh2O.ca is a good reference. It has data for all Saskatchewan cities and towns. This website uses Specific Conductance as a term for EC.

Sloughs can be almost any EC, and looking at the water gives few clues. Very nice clean looking water can be loaded with hard water salts that really take the edge of off glyphosate herbicides. And, do not assume that the water stays the same it can change drastically with changing conditions.

I use the EC meter shown in the briefcase in the photo. The briefcase also holds a notebook for recording results and a kit to measure hardness. This unit has 50 feet of cord that can be thrown in rivers or sloughs, over bridges or wherever. It is very rugged and dependable. It set me back about $900 many years ago.

Many EC meters measure pH also but pH measurements are not always needed. For certain herbicides pH can be very important so do read the label details about the individual herbicides.

Water hardness

Water hardness can be easily measured in the field using a Hach hardness kit — usually available at businesses that supply water well drillers with pipe, pumps etc.

Hardness is determined by the amount of calcium plus magnesium that are in a sample, expressed as parts per million. It is a complicated equation but the kit takes care of that. Some kits express hardness in an old unit (grains per gallon). This measurement is still in use because water well drillers still use it.

With a knowledge of EC and Hardness we have 90 per cent of what we need to know about a water. Chapters 8 and 9 of Henry’s Handbook of Soil and Water have reference data for both surface and ground water for all three Prairie provinces

For more information on water issues associated with herbicide spray, see provincial agricultural websites.

Rule of thumb

Water quickly picks up minerals as it passes through or over soil materials. For water that comes from glacial soil materials the hardness in ppm is about 0.5 x the EC. Waters that have passed through pre-glacial (bedrock) deposits are much softer.

As a general rule, Alberta well waters are much softer because many of them are completed in bedrock formations. The depth of glacial material is much less in Alberta than in Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

Quality Control

If you are doing water measurements in the field, it is important to check the results against a lab on a regular basis. I use Saskatoon tap water as a standard and check with City of Saskatoon staff to see what they are putting in the lines.

The post Water chemistry: the Coles notes appeared first on Grainews.

We commonly see more blackleg and all the other clostridial diseases in dry conditions. With shorter grass, cattle and bison graze closer to the soil and increase the likelihood of picking up the organisms. Also slough holes, creek bottoms and other areas normally covered by water are exposed.

All livestock must receive preventative vaccinations and that includes mature stock if they have not had booster shots within a maximum of two years or less.

Anthrax

Anthrax is fatal as well and although very rare is often traced to these dried-out waterways. There is a vaccine for it, but generally it is only given in outbreaks or if a history in the area. Generally if it has been diagnosed in a herd, surrounding herds are vaccinated as well. The federal veterinarians (CFIA) no longer look after control of anthrax or removal and disposal of dead animals. Vaccination is then considered for several years subsequent and close neighbours may consider it.

Any producer along the same waterway may need to consider vaccination and should consult with his/her veterinarian. Always have a complete autopsy performed by your veterinarian in any sudden deaths of cattle you find to rule out these diseases. Private veterinarians through the provincial associations now can access quick tests on blood for the determination of anthrax. This could become a great help because if we suspect anthrax we are not supposed to open up the carcass.

Parasites

We always think of internal parasites being a problem in wet weather. This is for the most part true and desiccation (drying) does wonders to kill the parasitic larvae. However livestock, especially calves, will be grazing very close to the manured sites and may pick up parasites. Calves, because they are so inquisitive will eat whatever is available. If grass is short, picking at manure patties and licking dirt may become a pastime. This is especially true if being dry fed in confinement.

An easy check is to run routine fecals on about 10 per cent of the group in the summer. If worms are a problem they will be shedding at this time. Dewormers can often be placed in the minerals or feed to avoid bringing everyone back from pasture. Calves do not eat much mineral yet in studies they eat enough to get the medication for internal worms. Deworming results in gains up to 20 to 30 pounds over an average summer. In a drought condition we definitely can’t afford to be feeding worms and the extra feed efficiency helps as well.

Respiratory issues

With dry conditions come dust and other particulate matter in the air. Regular movement will stir this dust up. Often the respiratory tract is overtaxed clearing out this debris. Coughing is the normal response to purging the respiratory passages. If too much coughing is evident, watch closely as pneumonia can be the sequelae, or secondary result.

This year especially young calves will be hardest hit and even when moved out to pasture the dust has been unavoidable. In some cases mass medication of the calves has been necessary. Many producers now are also vaccinating the younger calves for the respiratory bacteria as well as the viruses. Many are using the new intranasal products that are out there

If coughing is evident in many of the herd always keep in mind lungworms. Even though it needs moisture to complete the life cycle, Watch the grazing pattern of the livestock. With drier conditions cattle, bison and other herbivores will seek out lower, wetter areas where vegetation is more plentiful. This is where exposure to the lungworm larvae may happen. Again fecal tests specifically for lungworm can help diagnose this condition if you suspect it. Alberta and Saskatchewan seem to be the two provinces we see lungworms in the most.

Water quality

With drought, water sources become taxed. All the issues with water quality need to be addressed. Blue-green algae will proliferate as organic matter builds up. Contamination by coliform bacteria and other water borne organisms such as giardia proliferate. You need to maximize water preservation by using the solar or wind pumps. This also improves water quality. Dugouts become extremely hazardous for calves getting stuck or bogged down especially if weak from another illness.

Toxic plants

Cattle may also start to forage on less desirable weeds such as stinkweed, lambs quarter, tansy, horsetail, locoweed, water hemlock and several others. Each of these plants has varying degrees of toxicity so watch for them if pastures get too low. Your veterinarian will know which toxic plants are resident in your local area and advise if there are any other diseases or health issues to worry about.

Management options

In a dry spell many management decisions need to be altered and health monitoring is one of them. We have producers in our area contemplating early weaning and implementing a deep cull on their cow herd in order to better utilize grass shortages. Early pregnancy checking is another way to cull early allowing only the pregnant cows to complete the grazing season. Fewer cattle will extend the grazing season.

Let’s always communicate as to specific conditions the local region is encountering. Veterinary clinic newsletters, provincial surveillance programs and neighbours talking among themselves allows us to help each other when strange environmental issues lead to disease emergence.

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“Water hardness is based on the amount of calcium and magnesium in the water,” Zollinger explains. Hardness is expressed as the amount of calcium in the water added to the amount of magnesium present as calcium carbonate equivalent. “The presence of the other minerals would be additive to the hard water value,” he says. “Hard water may contain mostly calcium, magnesium, iron, and potassium. Soft water contains sodium, similar to how a water softener works in homes.”

Minerals such as calcium, magnesium potassium, iron and sodium contain cations, or positively charged ions, that bind with herbicides, reducing absorption, which results in less activity from the herbicide.

Zollinger delivered a presentation entitled, “Weed Control Issues: How Water Quality Can Affect Herbicide Efficacy” at Manitoba Ag Days, held at Brandon, Man. in January.

During the presentation, Zollinger showed evidence that much of the water in the Prairie provinces is very hard, showing an up to or greater than 250 milligram per litre (ppm) concentration of hardness as calcium carbonate.

Almost all “weak acid” herbicides are antagonized by minerals in hard water, he explained, including glyphosate (Group 9) and Liberty (Group 10), and other “weak acid” herbicides in various chemical groups. Calcium levels of 150 ppm and sodium levels of 300 ppm in spray water are enough to antagonize herbicides.

According to an article on water quality and weed control prepared by Saskatchewan’s Ministry of Agriculture, hard water can also reduce the activity of 2,4-D Amine. If the water is hard enough, this herbicide’s effectiveness is severely reduced.

Additionally, some Saskatchewan groundwater contains relatively high levels of bicarbonate ions. “Bicarbonate content can be a factor affecting the performance of some herbicides, particularly those in the “dim” group such as Achieve (tralkoxydim), Poast Ultra (sethoxydim) and Centurion/Select (clethodim) as well as 2,4-D Amine,” explains the article.

Managing hard water

There are a few steps you can take to mitigate the impact of hard water on herbicide efficacy. One strategy is to apply the maximum rates of herbicides when hard water is an issue. Also, water volume can be reduced to the minimum required for adequate herbicide coverage. This is effective for glyphosate in particular, due to a higher concentration of glyphosate in spray droplets.

Zollinger recommends applying ammonium sulfate (AMS) fertilizer with glyphosate, as it prevents cations in hard water from binding to glyphosate and minimizing its effectiveness.

AMS application rates should vary based on water hardness. Most glyphosate labels recommend an application rate of 8.5 to 17 pounds per 100 gallons, but as little as four pounds per 100 gallons may be enough to overcome most salt antagonism. Zollinger’s guideline for dry application rates is 8.5 pounds per 100 gallons, or 0.8 kilograms per acre. AMS can also be purchased in liquid form for easier application. One guideline for liquid AMS application rates is 1.6 litres per acre. “This will overcome salts in the water and enhance all weak acid herbicides,” Zollinger says.

AMS is not perfect — application requires lots of product, as well as time to let it dissolve in the spray water. In addition, it slows speed of loading and spraying overall, and impurities, as well as low water volume, may plug nozzles. However, Zollinger is convinced that the benefits outweigh the negatives.

“AMS has been the cheapest and most effective method to overcome hard water antagonism of herbicides,” he says. “There are liquid water conditioners on the market that contain low amounts of AMS and other substances, but they are more expensive than AMS and some of them are less effective.”

Zollinger concluded his presentation with a warning: “Know your water quality.”

Growers who suspect they may have water quality issues should send samples for testing. In Saskatchewan, growers can refer to the ALS Environmental Laboratory’s testing services. In Manitoba, Central Testing Laboratory offers water testing packages.

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