To address this issue, many provinces operate co-operatives for both fed cattle and breeding stock. In Alberta for example, a feeder co-operative is made up of a group of producers who have combined resources with the Alberta government and lending institutions to provide a cost-effective means of financing that may not be available to individual producers.

“The co-operative approach has long been part of the lifeblood of Alberta’s beef industry,” says Reg Schmidt, Zone 3 director of the Feeder Associations of Alberta. “Throughout our 85-year history, their importance has been deep seated and they continue with an ongoing relevance today.”

FACTS AND STATS

In November 2022, the Alberta government increased the feeder association guarantee by 50 per cent, raising it from $100 to $150 million, largely to help offset increasing cattle prices.

Schmidt says their feeder associations currently finance over 22 per cent of all feeder cattle in the province and support more than 3,500 members. Up to $2 million of capital is available per farm entity, with only a five per cent security deposit. Breeder co-operatives require a 10 per cent deposit on purchases up to $500,000, much less than traditional banks and lending institutions demand.

“The programs offer all levels of farmers access to capital they otherwise wouldn’t be able to get,” Schmidt says. “It helps build long-term industry sustainability.”

Further west, Lindy Gilson, administrator for the B.C. Breeder and Feeder Associations, says the combination of their programs is especially beneficial for young beginning farmers growing their herds.

READ MORE: U.S. livestock: feeder cattle futures gain boost from corn market weakness

Their unique interest-relief component provides a substantial savings on feeder cattle, which helps deliver spinoff benefits as cows and heifers become transferable into five-year breeding plans. Members can use the feeder option to purchase replacement heifers for later retention, making it simpler to expand a cow herd.

LOYALTY AND COMFORT DRIVE BUSINESS

Schmidt says the relationships between Alberta’s 45 co-operatives are complicated with a mix of competitiveness and member comfort. The co-operatives tend to work together for the betterment of all, due to identical provincial operating regulations, but they are still competitive. Each association has variable fees for example, as each controls their own costs and charges.

“Producers are extremely loyal with their local co-operatives, even if they’re not physically the closest,” says Schmidt. “They want stability, and not only with capital. If they come across a hot feeder cattle sale in September, they want to be confident they can get a P.O. with only a phone call. That comfort makes it work.”

While the programs offer attractive five and 10 per cent deposits which tie up fewer farm finances and additional equity, longer-term benefits are harder to quantify. Since many co-operatives have been running for decades, their community-based focus and economic spinoffs help drive long-term growth and stability.

FLEXIBILITY AND FUTURE CHANGES

Gilson suggests the flexibility of B.C.’s associations is key for their members, providing many opportunities for regional growth.

“The Advance Payments Program, for example, allows our members to receive an cash advance on calves, then make their bred cattle payments, with the balance of proceeds theirs to use as they please. It’s similar to a summer operating loan.”

READ MORE: Understanding the feeder cattle market

The number of Alberta’s associations has dropped from 70 to 45 in the last 20 years due to consolidation, but many smaller groups continue to maintain relatively issue-free operations while supporting their local economies.

“Generally, the larger associations tend to be more successful, having three to four full-time staff focused on managing the loans and membership,” Schmidt says. “In the smallest groups the administrator is often working off the kitchen table as well as a being the supervisor checking cattle between farm tasks.” It may not be an ideal situation, but it works.

He believes change in the industry happens largely due to its own momentum. Trying to force major changes such as consolidation of smaller co-operatives is like trying to push a string uphill. Members have an established loyalty and comfort to their association, so changes need to happen of their own volition.

For Gilson, an increase in individual finance limits would be the most prominent change B.C. co-operatives would desire. She adds this aspect is already in the works and should build on their currently successful feeder and breeder programs.

Schmidt says co-operatives will continue to be a force to be reckoned with. Although Alberta’s representatives are the largest, they associate interprovincially, meeting once a year with provincial counterparts to share notes, discuss strengths and weaknesses along with improvement ideas.

“I would say both the feeder and breeder co-ops are here to stay,” says Schmidt. “They’re an integral part of our industry and producers are finding them useful and comfortable in their operations,” he says.

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Dr. Karen Schwartzkopf-Genswein, principal research scientist with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Lethbridge Research Station, says whether it’s calves or backgrounders moving to feedlots for finishing or to the packing plant, selling typically means travel. “It’s all part of the production continuum.”

On average, cattle are transported anywhere from three to seven times during their lifetime, with each event displaying distinct consequences for various types of animals. Using her experience studying transportation, Schwartzkopf-Genswein has attempted to separate exactly which aspects leading up to and during transportation cause health and welfare issues, and which do not.

Calf challenges

“We began with several simple questions,” says Schwartzkopf-Genswein. “Is it the distance travelled or the time on a truck without feed, water or rest? Is it loading density, environmental circumstances or the animal’s condition? Are the calves in good health, or are problems associated with offloading and reloading during mandated rest stops? How were they managed prior to being loaded?”

As a starting point, it’s accepted and documented there is a relationship between transportation and stress, especially for calves.

Newly weaned calves are bombarded with life-changing events such as being separated from their mother and the accompanied change from a milk to a forage (and some grain) diet. They may also be ear-tagged, vaccinated, dehorned or castrated, with these stressful events often occurring together before they’re moved off the ranch.

“Transport represents yet another stress in the form of fear, and also energy demands required for loading and maintaining balance and body temperature,” Schwartzkopf-Genswein says. “Very young calves don’t thermoregulate like older animals as they can’t dissipate heat well or have the fat reserves to counteract the cold.”

Stress reduces immunity and the ability of the body to naturally fight off infections. This makes calves more susceptible to respiratory diseases such as BRD.

“We lump these factors together as ‘shipping fever’ which is somewhat misleading, as it implies shipping is the sole cause of the stress that potentially makes them sick,” says Schwartzkopf-Genswein. “All these factors happen at once; the transport is the cherry on top.”

To address these matters, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) has updated its transport regulations, dropping the travel time from 48 to 36 hours before a rest stop is required for weaned calves. Mandatory rest periods increased from five to eight hours.

Testing both rest and road

To analyze the science behind these regulations, Schwartzkopf-Genswein and her team, including Dr. Daniela Meléndez Suárez, completed trials aimed at studying transport effects on behaviour, vigour, performance, fatigue, and health and well-being.

Initially, 320 weaned Angus-cross seven- to eight-month-old ranch-purchased calves were hauled either 12 or 36 hours before being assigned variable rest periods ranging from zero, four, eight to 12 hours. With a previous eight hours of travel from the ranch of origin, vaccinations and other typical induction procedures plus an acclimation period of 18 to 26 days was provided to ensure this earlier stress wouldn’t factor into results. This wasn’t a true preconditioning program, but that 18- to 26-day rest period before being shipped ended up playing an important role in this study.

The team was surprised to discover the changing rest periods during transportation appeared to have little effect on the calves.

“We realized we didn’t see differences in the first study because we ‘conditioned’ them,” says Schwartzkopf-Genswein. “The shorter 18-26-day on-farm period didn’t meet the formal definition of ‘preconditioning,’ but we believed by weaning, vaccinating, and accustoming them to new pens and feed for those 18 to 26 days before we started our trial meant a rest during transportation didn’t improve their overall health, performance or well-being up to 28 days after arrival at the feedlot.”

Subsequent trials tested ‘conditioned’ versus ‘unconditioned’ calves plus auction-purchased versus ranch-direct calves. Even with variable rest stop durations and calf sources, few consequences were noticed with all groups. The largest indicators were observed between conditioned and unconditioned animals.

A concluding trial added four- to 15-hour travel times after the final rest period to determine if longer times changed the influence of the rest. Again, rest times or length of travel after these periods had little impact. Based on these consistent findings across numerous trials using the same indicators, the team was confident the largest factor in how well calves manage transport depends on whether they’re conditioned before being transported.

Research found preconditioning is beneficial for feed calves, and improves their ability to handle transport stress more than providing feed, water and rest during the trip. “The condition of the animal going onto the truck really dictates how well they manage the transport. The studies show how important preconditioning is — it really makes a difference,” she says.

“Transport concerns are fine, but we need to make sure regulations work under real conditions rather than us simply appearing to do the right thing. Our practices must reflect what the animals are telling us.”

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These are all important considerations but are there reasons to also look at lingering health impacts? Should previous bovine respiratory disease (BRD) events play a role in replacement heifer selection?

“The BRD event would need to be bacterial in nature,” says Jeff Caswell, a veterinarian in the Department of Pathobiology at the University of Guelph. “With viral issues, we believe they appear, an immune response is mounted, and if the animal survives it shouldn’t become a problem. A smouldering bacterial infection like a Mycoplasma bovis, however, could cause chronic lung lesions.”

Three facts to consider

Caswell says there are three possible answers to the question about the impact of one-time BRD on replacement heifers.

First, note if they had pneumonia during their early months of life and they still don’t appear completely sound, or if there are abnormalities or lesions in the lungs at selection time.

A second approach is to consider the idea of “trained immunity” from time in the uterus or early in life. Trained immunity describes the process by which innate immune cells acquire immunological memory. After exposure to certain stimuli, innate immune cells can adjust their response to subsequent insults, resulting in an enhanced response to previously encountered infectious agents.

Lastly, Caswell suggests an examination of genetic background and BRD heritability.

“Regarding chronic or long-term issues, we need to examine the level of lung damage or lesions and to what extent it’s been resolved. Was it clinically apparent, then treated but dragged on for an extended time, resolved itself, flared up again, only to cycle multiple times?”

Feedlot studies have shown when pneumonia is treated and disappears, cattle grow relatively well compared to those who never contracted BRD. This trend should safely translate into replacement choices, but in chronic situations, it is possible animals are predisposed to increased respiratory disease and poor future performance.

“The idea of trained immunity and imprinting, looking at exposure to inflammation in the uterus before birth, or early bouts of pneumonia, is more nebulous,” says Caswell. “Some work has been done on this subject, but with limited data, results could be positive or negative. I’d like to see more research completed in this area.”

Regarding genetics, he says susceptibility to BRD has some heritability aspects. An animal contracting pneumonia might be slightly more predisposed than one never affected.

Testing for susceptibility

Professor Bonnie Mallard of the Ontario Veterinary College has completed work in this field, and is inventor of the High Immune Response (HIR) technology which identifies animals with naturally optimized immune responses.

“The idea of this testing is to predict susceptibility,” says Caswell. “I think it would be an inefficient genetic selection tool to choose a replacement based solely on whether she did or didn’t have BRD. But identifying individuals who mount a higher immune response may indicate a lower prevalence to the disease in the future.”

Caswell suggests it might be plausible to use lung ultrasound as a part of selection criteria. There are ongoing trials aimed at detecting respiratory disease in dairy heifers and tracking their long-term performance as mature cows. Research examining the connection between lung issues and future performance in beef cattle is needed.

Caswell recently took part in a study where lung ultrasound was performed on arriving feedlot cattle. Some findings showed that minor levels of residual lung damage in the front portion of the lung weren’t a concern, but if a major section was affected, it presented as a noticeable problem in performance.

As a starting point, BRD treatment rates could be compared with pregnancy success, along with pre-weaning calf survival to provide an indication of cause and effect.

Caswell says the most concrete conclusion is that heifers experiencing multiple episodes of pneumonia, especially including breathing difficulty, aren’t prime replacement candidates.

“At the other extreme, a female with one previous episode of pneumonia who was treated and recovered is probably fine. The tricky part is determining where in the middle we draw the line. Exactly what measurable effect is related to long-term performance? I don’t think anyone has specifically studied this relationship, but it’s something that should be tackled.”

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While head gates, squeeze chutes, gates, alleys and tubs have become more advanced in their operation, some human strength, exertion and neural competence are still required for their manipulation. But one company says that may change.

“We’ve always been about improved individual animal management,” says Kurt Chellberg, North American market manager for Te Pari, a New Zealand-based cattle and sheep handling equipment company. “While many producers still use pen and paper next to the chute, risking the loss of all their data to countless unfortunate events, our machine learning and artificial intelligence technology provides them with the tools to manage their cattle easier in a physical sense and have their information based on real data rather than guesswork.” 

Te Pari is a family-owned business renowned for its leading-edge handling hardware and solutions. Australia and the U.K. host company offices, while Burnsville, Minnesota serves as the North American headquarters.

Automated identification 

Chellberg says while automated or remote-controlled squeeze chutes and gates aren’t new, Te Pari recently released Taurus, a significantly more advanced system. This auto-sorting chute uses laser beams and sensors to detect cattle entering the chute and responds by opening and closing the entry gate. After holding the animals for an electronic ear tag identification, a weigh cycle and data recording, it automatically releases them while simultaneously manipulating exit gates to divert them to a desired pen. All data is collected and uploaded to the Cloud for access from any smartphone or computer. The system then resets itself for the next animal.

“It’s set up to operate on its own,” Chellberg says. “Our machine is fully automatic, weighing and recording data points before sending animals on their way. It is programmable to sort by RFID or any other electronic identification tag with a range of parameters including weight, sex, breeds, colors, and breeding groups.”

He speculates that on a farm where cattle move with natural flow, a single worker could sort anywhere from 200 to 300 head per hour.

Machine learning and AI 

“Our head gate is controlled either remotely or at the chute dashboard. If the user needs to jump in and interrupt the automatic cycle to treat or perform a procedure on a specific individual, it’s a simple transition to apply the manual controls,” says Chellberg. 

He believes the system is well worth the investment,as every data point on an animal is tracked, making management decisions more accurate than ever. Details such as age, origin, travel and weight history, treatment information and performance levels are available to assist the decision-making process.

“Owners get the answers they need,” Chellberg says. “They know whether an animal is gaining or losing weight, or if it has been treated repeatedly for BRD or parasite control. It’s incredible what can be learned and done with reliable data.”

Future cattle handling impacted by automation

Te Pari’s automated handling equipment, including the Taurus, is available in North America after recently being demonstrated at a Tulsa, Oklahoma farm show. Chellberg says they have a busy event schedule planned for 2023, including an outdoor appearance in Woodstock, Ontario to promote their technology and demonstrate it to livestock owners.

“Currently, we have four units on the ground in the U.S. installed and working in cattle operations,” he says. “Reception to our equipment has been incredible when it’s seen in action. People have been blown away by its capabilities.”

Chellberg believes that in the future, machine learning and artificial intelligence will expand further into the livestock-handling sector as labour shortages grow and the demand for individual data and information increases. Consumers will insist on knowing exactly where their beef is coming from and how it has been raised. Subsequently, owners will be forced to accomplish more with reduced labour units, plus provide the additional required information.

“We’ve got to keep abreast and make our systems smarter and easier to operate,” he says. “Technology drives improvement. Ease of handling develops, plus data tracking and source verification move chute side. The minute we take manual data recording out of the equation and automate the process, it becomes much more consistent, accurate, and useful. Plus, it’s less prone to human error.”

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“It’s been the easiest way to measure, plus, we still sell cattle by the pound,” says Karin Schmid, Beef Production and Extension lead for Alberta Beef Producers. “The simplest answer to why we should continue to weigh is we can calculate average daily gain (ADG), cost of gain, and feed conversion. If we don’t know how heavy our calves are or how they’ve gained, we won’t know if we’re making any genetic or breeding program progress.”

What weight tells us

Schmid says many reasons for weighing livestock jump to the forefront, with nutrition and health considerations leading the way.

While testing is still the best gauge of feed quality, animals eating well but not gaining could point to a nutritional deficiency. If illness is ruled out, an evaluation of feeding parameters might pinpoint a weakness requiring a change.

Schmid says the more likely culprit of condition loss is sickness.

“Often, the first sign of disease is an animal going off feed. When they’re not eating, they’re not gaining. And it’s important to measure this for verification. This could indicate parasites or other disease burdens not readily apparent.”

Knowing weights in the feedlot is also critical for the financial well-being of an operation, not only for ADG, cost of gain or feed conversion metrics, but to fall within a packer’s desired carcass limitations. With potential premiums and discounts in play, it’s crucial to market cattle at the right time.

“One aspect not as apparent when considering the importance of individual weights is drug dosages,” Schmid says. “Whether parasite controls, antimicrobials or antibiotics… all are based on weight. If we don’t have it, we could be overdosing and wasting expensive product, or underdosing and not getting the desired treatment effect.”

Weight in the cow herd

Schmid says weights are also valuable for commercial cow herds, helping to match them with their environment and available forage resources.

“Intake is highly correlated with weight, so it helps predict and match feed resources with animals. One of the best metrics is the weight of weaned calves per female exposed, because it combines both growth and reproductive efficiency. As weight increases, so does dry matter intake. It’s not necessarily a linear relationship but relates to optimizing a targeted mature cow size with their environment and feed resources.”

With limited resources, bigger cattle could be detrimental, whereas with abundant supplies, they will likely be efficient.

Schmid believes this balance of size, location, climate and growing conditions is too often overlooked or not seen as important to cow-calf producers.

“Cost of gain doesn’t only matter in the feedlot. It matters with growing calves on their mothers. We should call it ‘cost of maintenance’ and ask ourselves, ‘what is the cost of maintaining our cow herd at the right body condition and weight?’ And we won’t know the answer if we’re not able to scale them as adults.”

Reproductive focus and genetic optimization

Schmid says the body conditioning and weight of replacement heifer prospects relate directly to reproductive success and fertility rates. Fitting within an accepted target window of 50 to 60 per cent of mature size helps define maturity and this knowledge is useful in understanding the relationship between breeding cycles and nutrition.

“If they aren’t maturing when they should be in their first estrus window, it puts the whole breeding cycle behind. Additionally, if we’re seeing loss in those we’re trying to breed back on a declining plain of nutrition, breeding efforts, whether artificial insemination or natural, won’t be as successful.”

Schmid notes accessibility to weight information fosters growth and ensures operational goals have the best chance of being met. She acknowledges that expected progeny differences (EPDs), genomically enhanced EPDs and performance programs are vital to meeting these goals, but phenotypes are still required to increase accuracy and provide support.

“Pure genetic merit on its own only tells one part of the story. It doesn’t show how cattle are performing in a specific herd or environment. There’s a saying — ’In the age of genomic data, phenotypes are still king.’ We need data such as weight, to help underpin those genomic predictions. All parts need to work together to fine-tune production.”

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Well, that’s not just wishful thinking. ClicRtechnologies, a Florida-based precision ag company, is now offering this reality (clicrweight.com). As creators of 3D-imaging technology supported by advanced vision software, they aim to replace traditional livestock weigh scales with artificial intelligence and machine learning.

In the early 2000s, the idea blossomed in the mind of Joseph Spicola Sr., a former rancher, inventor and now CEO of ClicRtechnologies, when he became frustrated with the process of weighing cattle on his ranch.

“Getting cattle to the scales bothered me,” Spicola says. “Things would break down, need to be fixed, and often there was a shortage of cowboys to do the job. I knew there must be a better way, but I couldn’t find a solution. Then, I had a bit of a vision and thought maybe I could use pictures instead.”

Setup and possibilities

Spicola and his team devised three weight solutions comprised of 3D-image cameras, RFID readers, computer software and an algorithm created with artificial intelligence and machine learning. Real-time weights are delivered through a cloud-based web server to a smartphone, tablet or computer.

Scaleless weighing solutions are available for cattle and hogs, while in southern states they can even be used for farmed alligators. That same technology will soon be available in Canada.

Bovine and swine options feature a 3D-image camera and computer installed at a water source. Early in their life, each animal is outfitted with an RFID ear tag. Each time they drink, an RFID reader identifies individuals from ear tags while the camera unobtrusively captures between 100 and 200 images of each animal. With up to 500 pictures taken during a 24-hour cycle, an algorithm calculates a weight and uploads it to the cloud where it can be accessed along with an inventory, average daily gains (ADGs) and other performance markers.

From pictures to data

ClicRtechnologies is changing the way producers make decisions, helping them prioritize knowledge and data in their management systems, says global sales manager Sergio Monge. They accomplish this by providing a daily calculated weight deemed to be 96 per cent accurate.

“Weights, average daily gains and photos are all in the palm of your hand, 24/7, 365 days a year. Plus, with continuous improvement, our technology has been trained to not only weigh an animal but to recognize distinct breeds by interpreting a detailed user-generated profile,” he says.

The technology counts the times they drink, tracks gain and recognizes a pre-programmed ‘sweet spot’ for finishing. When the desired target is reached, the system activates equipment that marks the animal with paint. It can even be manipulated to deliver exact amounts of topically applied parasitic treatment based on individual weights.”

The company says the hardware is tested and protected against condensation and cold temperatures, as the internal components create their own heat, keeping them operating seamlessly in all climates. The algorithm coding is also tuned to understand behaviour in response to the environment, helping to maintain its accuracy.

Monge says producers too often today need to make management decisions on limited information. But, with ClicR, they have real-time data. Feed rations can be altered, livestock not performing well can be removed from a pen, or finished animals can be easily identified and sorted for market.

“With real-time key performance indicators of cattle or swine, savings are realized in reduced feed waste, by preventing marketing of over- or undersized carcasses, and by recognizing sickness in those not drinking as they should,” Monge says.

Coming to Canada

ClicRtechnologies is expanding its sales and service into Canada and hopes to soon begin placing the technology in Canadian operations. It has begun a working association with a prominent Canadian swine genetics company to improve breeding management practices and add depth and robustness to the algorithm.

More measurements are coming. Soon, the company will add a body conditioning score application for dairy and cow-calf operators, along with lameness prediction abilities for cattle and hogs.

“We want to change the status quo,” Monge says. “We often hear, ‘my dad or grandad did it this way.’ We tell them there’s nothing wrong with that, but now there’s a newer, easier, faster and more accurate way.”

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Dorothy Erickson, manager of veterinary services for Zoetis in Saskatoon, believes beef’s constructive marketing requires an understanding of its relationship to sustainability.

“When we look at the big picture, I think it’s suitable to think of sustainability as a commitment rather than an attainable goal,” says Erickson. “And when we’re sustainable, we’re marketable.”

Buzzwords are plentiful today, particularly surrounding food and the consumer’s acceptance of various production practices, but she says the answers lie deeper than in shallow terms.

“Rather than just a buzzword, sustainability is really a process. A big part of the process is the critical evaluation of our regular management practices and continual reappraisal of those practices. We need to ensure we’re doing what’s best for all partners factoring in production, animals, environment, and our business model. Continuous improvement is going to be at the core.”

Aspects of progress

Erickson defines the livestock sector’s maintenance and marketability as dependant on ensuring current practices are consistent with long-term viability. To make this possible, financial, environmental and social perspectives must be considered.

“It’s imperative we look at the different aspects and realize some are going to remain consistent between different operations and systems in geographical areas, but others will vary. No one universal set of criteria will determine sustainability in the livestock industry. What works in one geography may not work in another.”

Erickson believes both intensive production and niche marketing fit a sustainable model and says consumers will purchase food they feel directly aligns with their values. It may be due to environmental impact, processing or local sourcing.

“If it’s important to the consumer and they have the means to pay a premium for it, there will be a market for those smaller niche systems,” she says. “On a big scale though, intensive production is necessary to feeding a growing population.”

Erickson urges those in the beef industry to continue countering the misconception that big equals bad or that large operations automatically use poor practices and compromise animal welfare. Both good and bad occur independent of operation scope.

Common themes will push marketability and sustainability, but Erickson emphasizes the way participants in the production chain treat animals — welfare and handling — is non-negotiable. Regional and climate differences must be considered. For example, shade coverings are vital in some locations while not as essential in others. Geographic variations must be respected while common themes are underpinned, driving those initiatives across the markets.

Technology and interaction

Erickson says applying new technology is central to advancing production practices and ensuring sustainability. The industry is being asked to feed a growing population while also being pressured to increase production, all while limiting environmental impact.

“It’s crucial to evaluate technologies and examine how they fit into our sustainable practices,” she says. “In order for advances to truly support a workable model, they ultimately must be accepted by the consumer. If they don’t align with their values or aren’t understood, they will likely choose to stop purchasing our product.”

To address hesitancy and concern, she points out the need to continue sharing information to gain consumer trust and acceptance of technology. She explains financial advantage isn’t always the reason technologies are incorporated. At the core, the beef industry looks to protect the environment, animal welfare and all the different components keeping it strong.

At a recent general meeting of the Canadian Roundtable for Sustainable Beef, some interesting survey data reinforced that the voices of animal agriculture detractors are loud, but the majority of society is willing to listen and learn.

Most people are not diametrically opposed to meat and dairy, but there’s a disconnect and a lack of understanding of food production in general. There is mistrust and misinformation, but Erickson believes most consumers want to know where their food is coming from, how it’s produced and to feel confident it’s safe and supports their values.

“It’s essential we continue sharing the positives of the beef industry and what it’s doing well. Counter the negative messages and keep on telling the story of Canadian beef. We already have excellent practices in our industry helping drive all aspects of marketing and sustainability in the right direction.”

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Technically, it’s a misnomer, says Russ Daly, extension veterinarian at South Dakota State University. Calf producers typically refer to it this way, as it happens on pasture matching up with summer in North America, as opposed to ‘fall pneumonias,’ often referring to feedlot cattle post-weaning.

“What we find is all pneumonias are similar in their pathogenesis, or how they develop in the animal, whether it’s a young calf or a feedlot steer after they’ve been transported,” says Daly. “It’s still the same germs, bacteria, viruses and risk factors. No single bug is associated with summer pneumonia.”

Sickness generally fits under the heading of Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD). In the broadest sense, BRD refers to any disease of the upper or lower respiratory tracts. BRD in cattle is commonly associated with infections of the lungs, causing pneumonia in calves that have recently been weaned or recently arrived at the feedlot. BRD is most prevalent within the first weeks of arrival at the feedlot. It can occur later in the feeding period and is also seen in calves on pasture.

Pathogens, viral agents and causes

Post-mortems of affected calves show the familiar types of bacteria older cattle experience, such as Mannheimia, Histophilus and Mycoplasma. Causes include exposure to dust, a condition dependent on weather. “In dry pastures, risk factors like dust push the bacteria down into the lungs for both older and younger calves,” says Daly, noting the dynamics of calf pneumonia can be broken down into two distinct phases.

First, he attributes insufficient colostrum as the potential cause for newborns in the first two months of life.

“The biggest risk factor is the transfer of immunity from mother to calf through colostrum,” he says. “If the quality isn’t there, antibody levels won’t be present to help fight off germs present in younger life.”

Second, older calves becoming ill in late summer or early fall before weaning also relates to colostrum, although a bit more indirectly. In this case, with the passage of time the colostral protection is wearing off, causing calves to become vulnerable to disease.

“If it’s happening in a lot of calves at the same time, we can get a drop of overall immunity in the population, making them all susceptible at once,” he says. “Sometimes, we can help tease out those risk factors by looking at the age as they’re getting sick.”

Vaccinations, management, and distribution

Daly says the best defence is targeted and timely vaccinations, as they can stimulate immunity. He says it’s challenging to elicit a strong immune response in very young animals, but vaccinating before turnout will provide a realistic opportunity.

“There’s more to it, but it’s one of the tools we can control,” he says. “Look at when they are expected to get ill and ask — what can we do two or three weeks before to get vaccines into them?”

Management is another control tool. Processes such as estrus synchronization and artificial insemination where cow-calf pairs are gathered, sorted and grouped, often in dusty conditions, generate extra stress and foster transmission of bacteria.

“The younger the calves are when they experience this close contact, the sooner they’ll become colonized with bacteria that could eventually find its way to the lungs,” Daly says.

While all cattle populations carry pneumonia-causing germs, older animals aren’t as affected, as their immune systems hold it in check, but if the bacteria colonize in young calves before they are able to defend against it, issues arise.

“Being contagious is in play, because calves in closer proximity will ensure their herd mates become colonized too,” he says. “From there it’s up to the calf’s immune system to keep the disease in the nasal passages and not let it get down to the lungs.”

Calf crops in a wider range of age and size also invite greater risks since broader stages of immunity are present. Older ones might be more immune but may become a source of bacteria for younger ones. Creating a compact calving season is an opportunity to defend animals against sickness, although it’s a double-edged sword, says Daly.

“If we have a very tight age distribution, it might mean everyone loses their immunity from maternal antibodies at once,” he says. “Or the exposure becomes uniform resulting in more dramatic problems.”

Attention and treatment

Vaccination, management and calving distribution aren’t a universal answer or silver bullet, as well-cared-for and ignored herds alike can break with pneumonia. As prey animals, bovines work hard to hide their symptoms, but subtle changes in behaviour should be noted, along with obvious visual cues such as drooping ears, lethargy and laboured breathing.

“A wide variety of antibiotic choices are available and approved for BRD,” Daly says. “Producers should remain watchful and vigilant of their nursing calves. It’s tougher to pull and treat them on pasture, but they do respond well to antibiotics.”

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One of the leading factors affecting calf uniformity is distribution throughout the breeding and calving seasons — a long breeding season results in a long calving season

Large operations are often able to withstand a lack of consistency as enough animals of similar size and conformation are available to make into groups, but smaller farms and ranches don’t have this option and must create it from management practices, says Matt Spangler, a professor and extension specialist in beef genetics at the University of Nebraska — Lincoln.

“A long calving season could be related to a long breeding season,” Spangler says. “When bulls run with cows for an extended time, calves will have a wide range in age when they wean, and consequently their weight is going to vary.”

Spangler says it’s a solid plan to buy bulls of similar traits, genetic merit, values and EPDs, which should deliver a consistent genetic package to the calf crop.

For example, many ranches sell at weaning or after a short preconditioning period, so weaning weights are important. Value should be based on how much improvement in a particular trait is desired. “Is something in the top 10 per cent of the breed for that trait wanted, or maybe top 20 per cent is good enough? Try to buy a group of similar bulls to match this,” Spangler says.

He emphasizes another simple method to increase uniformity is patience with a well-thought-out approach. “System design has a large impact. If I’m all over the place without a real plan, buying random bulls of varying breeds year after year, it will lead to issues of poor consistency in calves. Try to select bulls by their EPDs and use good management decisions. This multi-pronged strategy will make uniformity improvements.”

Reproductive technologies and pregnancy rates

Sarah Thorson, beef marketing manager at GENEX, agrees and points out that artificial insemination is another option beef producers should consider to achieve breeding goals and yet reduce the number of sires required.

“Breeding a hundred heifers in an AI project uses one or two bulls for the entire group,” Thorson says. “Some of them could be the cleanup sires. That maximizes uniformity and cuts back the bull battery.”

She says for smaller producers with large pastures requiring long-distance travel, at least two bulls are needed for 50 females, especially if the goal is to achieve a calving season of approximately 45 days. Adding estrus synchronization (ES) to the blueprint or breeding strategy generates more calves born earlier in the calving season, leading to a heavier crop and a shortened window.

“By using these protocols (AI and ES), the first day of the breeding season can end with 60 to 65 per cent of females pregnant, as conception or pregnancy rates are now in that range,” Thorson says. “It tightens the calving season; more calves are born earlier creating bigger and more consistent calves come weaning time. Fewer sorts are needed when sold on the Internet auction or at the sale barn.”

Logistics and superior genetics

Thorson adds while logistics and lack of facilities have discouraged producers from using reproductive technologies — they don’t feel they have the facilities to administer AI And ES treatments — the fact is they’ve never been easier to incorporate. Most semen representatives provide staff to handle the entire process. Often, only small and inexpensive tweaks, some mobile panels and a portable trailer are required.

“If the owners have people there to move cattle through the chute, trained crews will take care of the details,” she says. “They’ll handle semen and do all the arm work.”

Thorson believes the biggest advantage of these technologies is the best genetics from anywhere in the world are available at a reasonable cost.

“Most commercial producers aren’t paying $50,000 or $60,000 or $100,000 for bulls on a regular basis. With AI, those high-value genetics can be accessed for $20 to $25. Plus, especially for commercial operators, the ability to use highly proven sires is extremely valuable. They’ll feature whatever traits are desired to maximize a herd, be it retaining replacement females from highly maternal males, or knowing the offspring from terminal sires will perform in the feedlot. That kind of information adds a lot of value.”

Quality and uniformity are never instant, but when given an opportunity for success they can become reality. Focused management practices such as using EPD-targeted bull selection and a defined breeding season, together with superior genetics and reproductive technologies for higher conception and pregnancy rates, make all the difference.

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Crossbreeding is often reserved for females in the herd, but more producers are looking at the males to identify potential benefits and profit opportunities.

Breeding sires not fitting the purebred slot are considered hybrids or composites. While many use the terms interchangeably, technically they aren’t the same.

Hybrids are crossbreds having two distinct purebred parent breeds. Composites the result of mating among crossbred parents, normally creating animals with a similar percentage of a desired mix of more than two breeds through several generations of planning and selective breeding.

Benefits of crossing it up

Benefits of using a hybrid include the opportunity to form the ideal crossbred more easily, says Scott Greiner, professor and extension beef specialist at Virginia Tech. For example, he cites a producer with straight British breed females wanting to shift to a one-quarter Continental breed in resulting progeny.

“A half-British, half-Continental hybrid bull can make a quarter-bred calf in one generation,” Greiner says. “Using a purebred, we’re two sets away. Our first cross becomes a half-blood and if we mate those back to British, we get the quarter. That’s a big advantage.”

A separate advantage is that heterosis can be injected into the resulting calf crop based on the cows, as opposed to straight breeding.

The strategy fits longer-term plans as hybrids assist in maintaining a program without large breed-composition swings in resulting calf crops.

“That’s one of the historical challenges of purebreds,” Greiner says. “When we come back with a purebred bull, the breed mix within our cow herd and calf crop can sway and favour one breed or another. It’s just natural and at any point in time, we could have a less-consistent mix of breed composition. Hybrids allow us a chance to fix this across generations.”

Greiner says he’s comfortable saying there may be some potential libido advantages, although they may pertain more to large pastures and open range operations running more cows per bull. “Anecdotally, hybrid bulls seem to have enthusiasm for breeding and are aggressive in that way.”

Selecting the right mix

Once producers decide to use a hybrid or composite, the next decision is which combination?

“It’s important to have a clear objective and goals relative to the breeding program and where it’s headed,” Greiner says. “Identify those breeds supplying the genetics that not only meet them from a breed standpoint but also from a genetic merit standpoint.”

He says this ties in with the opportunity to add heterosis. “The crossbred cows should provide a breed mix desirable to the environment, marketing program and destination of the calves, whether it’s maternal or terminal.”

Much depends on their genetic makeup. When females are 50/50 in two breeds, and a bull of the same breeds is selected, some heterosis in the calves will be lost although it can still be sustainable. Maximum value is achieved when the makeup of the bulls doesn’t match that of the cows.

“Maternal heterosis is added in a simple and practical fashion by holding back heifers without having large fluctuations in breed composition between generations,” Greiner says. “It’s easier than using a complicated rotational system.”

Hybrids aren’t limited to only large beef operations, he adds. Practical crossbreeding with added heterosis also works easily in small herds.

“Traditional rotational methods using terminal sires aren’t always practical for smaller operations. But hybrids or composites can make mating strategies easier, especially when available pastures are limited. What they bring to the table can be equally capitalized on regardless of herd size.”

Greiner says the old concern of unpredictability in traits and genetics is disappearing as breeds continue to advance their genomic testing abilities and accuracy of EPDs.

“All the same tools are available. We’ve come a long way, from an industry standpoint. With the vast majority out there, breed associations have the technology to effectively perform genetic evaluations and provide EPDs and selection tools with hybrids just like purebreds.”

The beef industry has room for all types of breeding systems, including hybrids, composites and more mainstream practices. Greiner believes that in future, the interest and use of crossbreds will continue following the trend of recent years, as ease of management evolves and combines with heterosis.

“With excellent genetic prediction tools behind these crossbred bulls, we can select them in the same fashion as purebreds. I believe their use will continue to grow.”

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